Officially used in Iran and Afghanistan, the Solar Hijri calendar is one of the world's most accurate calendar systems. It is also known as Persian Calendar, Iranian Calendar, and SH Calendar. The Solar Hijri calendar is not to be confused with the Hijri calendar used in many Muslim countries and by Muslims around the world. What's the difference? The Solar Hijri calendar (Persian calendar) is a solar calendar, meaning that its time reckoning is based on the Earth's movements around the Sun. Unlike the Gregorian calendar, which follows a set of predetermined rules to stay in sync with the solar year, the Solar Hijri calendar is based on astronomical observations. The year begins at midnight closest to the vernal equinox in Iran – specifically at the Iran Standard Time meridian at longitude 52.5° east, which runs about 250 miles (400 km) east of Tehran. The first day of the new year is called Nowruz, and it is celebrated around the world by Iranian people. Tying the Solar Hijri calendar so closely to the astronomical seasons makes it much more accurate than the Gregorian calendar, which, even in its modern form, deviates from the solar year by 1 day in 3236 years. When Was Year 1 in Persian Calendar? The Solar Hijri year count starts with the Islamic prophet Mohammed's migration (Hegira or Hijrah) to Medina in 622 CE. Although the Solar Hijri calendar shares this start date with the Islamic calendar (Hijri calendar), the calendar systems are not related otherwise. The Hijri calendar is a lunar calendar. Because of this, the year counts between the Solar Hijri calendar and the Hijri calendar differ substantially. For example, January 1, 2016 fell into year 1394 in the Solar Hijri calendar, which corresponds to year 1437 in the Hijri calendar. Leap Year Rules
Officially used in Iran and Afghanistan, the Solar Hijri calendar is one of the world’s most accurate calendar systems. It is also known as Persian Calendar, Iranian Calendar, and SH Calendar.
The Solar Hijri calendar is not to be confused with the Hijri calendar used in many Muslim countries and by Muslims around the world.
What’s the difference?
The Solar Hijri calendar (Persian calendar) is a solar calendar, meaning that its time reckoning is based on the Earth’s movements around the Sun.
Unlike the Gregorian calendar, which follows a set of predetermined rules to stay in sync with the solar year, the Solar Hijri calendar is based on astronomical observations. The year begins at midnight closest to the vernal equinox in Iran – specifically at the Iran Standard Time meridian at longitude 52.5° east, which runs about 250 miles (400 km) east of Tehran. The first day of the new year is called Nowruz, and it is celebrated around the world by Iranian people.
Tying the Solar Hijri calendar so closely to the astronomical seasons makes it much more accurate than the Gregorian calendar, which, even in its modern form, deviates from the solar year by 1 day in 3236 years.
When Was Year 1 in Persian Calendar?
The Solar Hijri year count starts with the Islamic prophet Mohammed’s migration (Hegira or Hijrah) to Medina in 622 CE. Although the Solar Hijri calendar shares this start date with the Islamic calendar (Hijri calendar), the calendar systems are not related otherwise.
The Hijri calendar is a lunar calendar. Because of this, the year counts between the Solar Hijri calendar and the Hijri calendar differ substantially. For example, January 1, 2016 fell into year 1394 in the Solar Hijri calendar, which corresponds to year 1437 in the Hijri calendar.
Leap Year Rules
Like in the Gregorian calendar, a common year in the Solar Hijri calendar has 365 days while a leap year has 366 days. However, because the Solar Hijri calendar is an observational calendar, there are no mathematical rules to determine leap years. Instead, it is the number of days between two vernal equinoxes that determines if Esfand has 29 or 30 days.
Rule-Based Version
A number of complex mathematical rules have been suggested to determine the distribution of leap years in the Solar Hijri calendar. One of them achieves a degree of accuracy very similar to that of the observational version, requiring about 110,000 years to accumulate an error of 1 day.
History and Background
The Solar Hijri calendar has been Iran’s official calendar since 1925. In Afghanistan, it was introduced in 1957.
The earliest forms of Iranian time reckoning date back as far as the second millennium BCE. A number of different calendar systems were used in Persia through the centuries, including the Zoroastrian calendar and the Islamic calendar. The first version of the modern Solar Hijri calendar, the Jalali calendar, was developed in the 11th century by a group of astronomers including the Persian scientist Omar Khayyam.
Iranian Month Names
The first day of the Persian calendar year is also the day of the greatest festival of the year in Iran, Afghanistan and surrounding regions, called norooz (two morphemes: no (new) and rooz (day), meaning “new day”). The celebration is filled with many festivities and runs a course of 13 days. The last day of which is called siz-dah bedar (Literal translation-”13 to outdoor”)
Days Of The Week
In the Iranian calendar, every week begins on Saturday and ends on Friday. The names of the days of the week are as follows: shambe (natively spelled “shanbeh”), yekshambe, doshambe, seshambe, chæharshambe, panjshambe and jom’e (yek, do, se, chæhar, and panj are the Persian words for the numbers one through five). The name for Friday, jom’e, is Arabic (Persian). Jom’e is sometimes referred to by the native Persian name, adineh. In most Islamic countries, Friday is the weekly holiday.
We have a lot of emails from women travelers who like travel alone, Always they start with these questions: Is it safe to travel to Iran as a solo female?Women in Iran have safety?How is the women's situation in there? So, we at Welcome to Iran Team decided to provide an article about women passengers from one of them who has gone through this experience. Here a guide about female travel in Iran: So, I went to Iran alone. Most people think I’m stupid or crazy, or both. But am I really? I must admit I had some doubts and couple of minor panic attacks before going, mostly due to my uncertain visa situation, but also because I haven’t traveled to such an exotic, unknown destination before, the one I didn’t really know how to prepare for. But the whole “solo female travel in Iran” thing turned out to be really cool and easy there and I enjoyed every single bit of it! For the 10 days I’ve spent in Iran I haven’t met another woman traveling alone (but I’ve heard from others there’re 2 more doing the same thing as me at the same time). There were tourists, surprisingly many of them, few guys traveling solo but not a single woman. That just meant to me that the stereotype that Iran is a dangerous place to visit, especially for independent (female) travelers are as strong as always. When I was telling my friends, I’m going to Iran some 90% of them were seriously concerned about me and asked me to think over my chosen destination. People keep confusing Iran and Iraq, thinking it’s a country torn by war and now under the ISIS rule. I kept explaining that it is a perfectly safe place, that I haven’t heard of anyone having
We have a lot of emails from women travelers who like travel alone, Always they start with these questions:
Is it safe to travel to Iran as a solo female?
Women in Iran have safety?
How is the women’s situation in there?
So, we at Welcome to Iran Team decided to provide an article about women passengers from one of them who has gone through this experience. Here a guide about female travel in Iran:
So, I went to Iran alone. Most people think I’m stupid or crazy, or both. But am I really?
I must admit I had some doubts and couple of minor panic attacks before going, mostly due to my uncertain visa situation, but also because I haven’t traveled to such an exotic, unknown destination before, the one I didn’t really know how to prepare for. But the whole “solo female travel in Iran” thing turned out to be really cool and easy there and I enjoyed every single bit of it!
For the 10 days I’ve spent in Iran I haven’t met another woman traveling alone (but I’ve heard from others there’re 2 more doing the same thing as me at the same time). There were tourists, surprisingly many of them, few guys traveling solo but not a single woman.
That just meant to me that the stereotype that Iran is a dangerous place to visit, especially for independent (female) travelers are as strong as always.
When I was telling my friends, I’m going to Iran some 90% of them were seriously concerned about me and asked me to think over my chosen destination. People keep confusing Iran and Iraq, thinking it’s a country torn by war and now under the ISIS rule.
I kept explaining that it is a perfectly safe place, that I haven’t heard of anyone having a single issue there, that everyone I know just loved their visit in that country. But still people were not convinced and that eventually made me feel pretty nervous about my trip to, I started having the thoughts of what I’m getting myself into…
Safety in Iran
For the whole time I’ve spent there I didn’t encounter even one situation when I would have felt in danger or even uncomfortable. Unlike other countries that are top tourist destinations but can be challenging for solo women (I’m looking at you Morocco) Iran was completely safe!
Of course, people were staring at me, both men and women, young and old but it was only because they were curious and didn’t have any bad intentions. Some braver one tried to talk to me and every day I repeated the word “Lachestan” (“Poland” in Farsi language) countless times. Usually the question where I am from and how do I like Iran were the only ones I was asked.
Just the other day I saw a list of the safest cities in the world and I was not surprised to see Tehran there. Iran really was probably the safest country I’ve ever visited! (click to read more about safety in Iran)
Iranian people
I heard so many things about the incredible Iranian hospitality I was really curious to see how it really is. I usually divide such stories by four and don’t expect much but surely on my second day in Iran (or was it a night?) I experienced it as well.
I took the night bus from Tehran to Shiraz (the journey was supposed to last between 12 and 15 hours) and at 5 in the morning I was woken up by the driver – it turned out he lives in the random town we were passing by and since at that point there was only me and two more passengers – a mother with a teenage daughter – he invited us over for a breakfast.
Normally I wouldn’t have accepted such an offer (and I refused few times before finally agreeing) but since I was accompanied by other women I figured out nothing bad can happen.
No one spoke English so for two hours we all did our best to communicate with hands, speaking loud and slow in our languages or using the short phrasebook at the end of Lonely Planet. Still it was a really lovely time, I felt very welcomed, ate much more than I’ve wanted and even got some extra food for the onward journey.
And stories like this do happen in Iran, a lot. People there are incredibly generous and hospitable and don’t have any bad intentions! As soon as you step out of the tourist route someone will talk to you and you never know how it might end! Just be open and say “yes” – that’s where the adventure in Iran starts!
Traveling around
You probably have heard about the Tehran metro that has separate carriages for women. Well, it’s true. I was slightly afraid I will end up in a wrong car but as it turned out there was nothing to worry about.
At the platform it is clearly marked where the women-only zone starts and those specific carriages are located at the front and back of the train. The stations are full of posters showing why men shouldn’t enter these parts of the metro, how uncomfortable the women would feel.
Traveling around Tehran was quite an experience anyway! There was always something going on, on every station the new show was starting, women were selling and buying all necessary things: from kitchen equipment to make up and bras!
The buses between the cities didn’t have the specific areas for women but when buying a ticket you get a seat reservation too. It happens that a guy gets a place next to you – it then takes some creativity from the driver to rearrange the passengers so no woman sits next to an unknown man. During my journey from Kashan to the airport (3 hours) I changed the seat 3 times!
Trying to figure out the transportation between the cities was slightly challenging. Fortunately now you can book everything beforehand at 1st Quest website! I wish it was possible during my trip…
Accommodation in Iran
I’m the kind of person that likes to have everything organized and when I travel I always book the place to stay in advance as I prefer to know there’ll be a bed waiting for me at the end of the day. Well, this wasn’t the case with Iran.
Due to my uncertain visa situation I wasn’t sure if I will be let in to the country and so I only booked my first night in Tehran (it was required to get a visa anyway) and it wasn’t easy anyway as back then there was only one pretty bad website that allowed you to book hotels in Iran (fortunately now there’s 1stQuest where you get the confirmation right away and they have over 500 hotels all over Iran to choose from!).
The next nights I spent in various places: a random hotel with only Iranian guests (I was a big attraction for them), 8-bed dorm in the basement of the most touristic hotel in Yazd (both nights I was the only women in the room), a private room in another hotel popular among foreign tourists and CouchSurfing with a lovely Iranian couple. And every time it was all fine!
The only issue I had was in Yazd where the bathroom was located few steps away from the dorm and to get there I had to cross the patio with the restaurant – with wet hair, wearing a pajama, a tunic and a scarf on my head I must have looked funny.
As for Couchsurfing – officially it is illegal in Iran but it is not blocked (unlike Facebook) and it is working really well in the country, every city has a lot of hosts to choose from. I heard only amazing things about CS in Iran and I knew I have to do it too!
Of course, I followed the rules like anywhere else: looked only for women or couples, preferable with some references, those I felt we’d click with. I tried CS in Isfahan, where I stayed with a really lovely couple – I got my own room, we spent pretty much time together and the most I learnt about the life in Iran was from them.
But if you look at their home or listen to our conversation you’d never guess they’re Iranian – they could as well live in any European country! Another prove that Iran is a normal place just like any other!
Eating out
That’s usually the most difficult part for solo travelers as let’s face it, we do feel uncomfortable sitting alone in the restaurant. But it was surprisingly good in Iran.
When I visited a place with Iranian clientele there was always someone trying to talk to me, whether a person working there or a fellow customer (and again the same questions were asked, where I am from and how I like Iran). In the tourists-oriented places there was also always someone chatting to me, just the topics of the conversation were different.
I don’t think in these 10 days I ate alone even once! The most challenging thing was eating with the headscarf on!
Clothes in Iran
That’s the most controversial part of solo female travel in Iran. For all the time you’re outside in the public (so even in the common areas of the hotel) you need to have your hair covered and to wear a manteau (a coat or tunic). You cannot have bare arms (everyone was wearing long sleeves) and your legs should be covered till ankles however the feet can be bare.
I was wearing skinny jeans and it was totally fine.
Also it’s not like the hair need to be all hidden, when I was looking at some girls I was wondering how their headscarf doesn’t fall (every journey by Tehran metro left me with jaw dropped as I couldn’t stop staring at beautiful women around, with all these clothes they really know how to show best features).
It’s also a stereotype that you need to wear black color only!
You need to follow these rules from the moment you step out of the plane till the moment you board the plane again.
There were days when it was pretty challenging to wear all that clothes when it was really hot outside but well, there was nothing I could do about that, I just accepted these rules. And honestly, I expected it will be much worse!
The headscarf kept me cool from the sun and it fell down only few times (but, surprisingly enough not when I was sleeping in the bus). When by accident my arm was seen helpful women on the streets rearranged my outfit so I looked fine again.
For next two days after leaving Iran I kept checking if my headscarf is on, you get used to it pretty fast and become somehow obsessed with keeping it on your head.
How to get to Iran?
I flew from Tbilisi to Tehran and then back to Berlin, with a stopover in Doha, with Qatar Airways. I booked my ticket some 3 weeks before the departure and it was just 300USD which I think is a really good deal, considering the short notice.
Qatar Airways has another advantage – while the majority of flights arrive to Tehran in the middle of the night and the queue to visa on arrival is rather long and time consuming my flight from Doha landed around midday and there were two people in line ahead of me.
You can also check and book flights via SkyScanner. I always use it when looking for flights as it has this cool option of choosing “anywhere” destination or “anytime” date.
There is no public transport from Tehran airport to the city, you have to use the taxi. There’s an official price list and how much you pay depends on the car you use.
So, that’s more or less my experience with solo female travel in Iran. I really enjoyed it, felt very safe for all the time and can only recommend it to everyone! If you think of visiting Iran now is the time to go as the country and especially its politics is changing and soon might become just another tourist destination. And you don’t want to miss the real Iran!
Would you like to visit Iran? Would you dare to travel solo there? If you have any questions about solo female travel in Iran (or about the country in general) feel free to contact us!
You can find a lot of women like her such as: Kristina Paltén, Alessia Ramponi, Veronika, Anna Everywhere, Ethel Karskens, Silvia, Carlys, Naomi, and etc.
Iranian architecture is associated with its geography like many cultural elements. The geography consists largely of a central desert plateau, surrounded by mountain ranges. Due to the country being mostly covered by earth, sand, and rock, Iranian architecture makes fantastic use of brick or adobe elements. Most of the buildings seen in larger cities such as Tehran and Isfahan are constructed using similar brick-laying methods as can been seen in other parts of the world, but certain constructions, usually ones that date further back, contain incredible geometrical treasures. And it doesn’t stop there - old Iranian architecture often contains a layer of tiles over the brick constructions that can create just as mesmerizing geometrical wonders. The art of creating complexity by using many incredibly simple elements is one that has been mastered in Iranian architecture . In an architectural world where construction has become hidden by layers of plaster and plywood, we could learn a lot from the beauty of Iran’s structural geometry, where skin and structure are (almost always) one and the same. Iranian architecture elements The common brick is something we are all quite familiar with; fired clay in the shape of a rectangular cuboid. Adobe, which most people are less familiar with, is the name for a compressed mixture of sand, silt, clay, water, and sometimes straw, to form the shape of an extruded square that is often seen in Iranian architecture. Different combinations are used to create different forms such as arches or ornamentation. Sometimes the adobe or brick is covered in plaster as protection, creating the impression of a single carved form. Most commonly Iranian architecture elements seen in mosques, the brick or adobe domes, arches and decorative entrances are occasionally covered in brightly colored tiles. The tiles, like the clay elements, are small individual
Iranian architecture is associated with its geography like many cultural elements. The geography consists largely of a central desert plateau, surrounded by mountain ranges. Due to the country being mostly covered by earth, sand, and rock, Iranian architecture makes fantastic use of brick or adobe elements. Most of the buildings seen in larger cities such as Tehran and Isfahan are constructed using similar brick-laying methods as can been seen in other parts of the world, but certain constructions, usually ones that date further back, contain incredible geometrical treasures. And it doesn’t stop there – old Iranian architecture often contains a layer of tiles over the brick constructions that can create just as mesmerizing geometrical wonders. The art of creating complexity by using many incredibly simple elements is one that has been mastered in Iranian architecture . In an architectural world where construction has become hidden by layers of plaster and plywood, we could learn a lot from the beauty of Iran’s structural geometry, where skin and structure are (almost always) one and the same.
Iranian architecture elements
The common brick is something we are all quite familiar with; fired clay in the shape of a rectangular cuboid. Adobe, which most people are less familiar with, is the name for a compressed mixture of sand, silt, clay, water, and sometimes straw, to form the shape of an extruded square that is often seen in Iranian architecture. Different combinations are used to create different forms such as arches or ornamentation. Sometimes the adobe or brick is covered in plaster as protection, creating the impression of a single carved form.
Most commonly Iranian architecture elements seen in mosques, the brick or adobe domes, arches and decorative entrances are occasionally covered in brightly colored tiles. The tiles, like the clay elements, are small individual pieces that come together to form a complex, organic geometry. From afar they appear to be one continuous facade, but up close one can easily see the gaps in between each crooked tile.
Before architects began installing glass, windows and doors were often made up of beautiful geometric wooden webs, constructed of hundreds of small, wooden sticks, cut to fit together perfectly – another example of the skilled ways in which Iranian craftsmen took a simple element, multiplied it and arranged it in order to create something incredibly intricate.
At Persepolis, a site estimated to be over 2500 years old, exists another example of the complexity achieved by building up a series of elementary components. Along the stone walls of the ruins are carvings of people, soldiers, kings, queens, and animals all very nearly perfect in relation to one another. The ability to carve the exact same solider over 10 times in a row without using a template or an automatic machine was achieved by carving them out step by step, just like building a wall brick by brick. One craftsman carved out the general form, another defined it, a third carved out the details, and a fourth focused on the beard and hair.
At the architecture school in the desert city of Yazd, students have explored contemporary ways of combining simple elements with a goal of creating a final structure that is geometrically advanced. Examples include textiles, string, and wires, using the design concepts of traditional Persian arts to produce something just as exciting within modern architecture.
The Iranian peoples are a collection of ethnic groups defined by their usage of Iranian languages and discernable descent from ancient Iranian peoples. The Iranian peoples live chiefly in the Middle East, Central Asia, the Caucasus, and parts of the Indian subcontinent, though speakers of Iranian languages were once found throughout Eurasia, from the Balkans to western China. As Iranian peoples are not confined to the borders of the current state of Iran, the term Iranic peoples is sometimes used as an alternative in order to avoid confusion with the citizens of modern Iran. The series of ethnic groups which comprise the Iranian peoples are traced to a branch of the ancient Indo-EuropeanAryans known as the Iranians or Proto-Iranians. Some scant information about the way of life of these early people has been elucidated through archaeological finds in Russia, Central Asia and the Middle East. The Iranian peoples have played an important role throughout history: the Achaemenid Persians established the world's first multi-national state, and the Scythian- Sarmatian nomads dominated the vast expanses of Russia and western Siberia for centuries and gave birth to the infamous Amazons. In addition, the various religions of the Iranian peoples, including Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism, were important early philosophical influences on Judeo-Christianity. Early Iranian tribes were the precursors to many diverse modern peoples, including the Persians, the Kurds, the Pashtuns, and many other, smaller groups. The southern Iranian peoples survived Alexander the Great's conquests, Muslim Arab attempts at cultural dominance, and devastating assaults by the Mongols, whereas the Iranians of the north were largely assimilated by the Slavs and other European peoples. Etymology and usage The term Iranian is derived from Iran (lit: "Land of the Aryans"). The old Proto-Indo-Iranian term Arya, meaning "noble", is believed to have been one of a series of self-referential
The Iranian peoples are a collection of ethnic groups defined by their usage of Iranian languages and discernable descent from ancient Iranian peoples. The Iranian peoples live chiefly in the Middle East, Central Asia, the Caucasus, and parts of the Indian subcontinent, though speakers of Iranian languages were once found throughout Eurasia, from the Balkans to western China. As Iranian peoples are not confined to the borders of the current state of Iran, the term Iranic peoples is sometimes used as an alternative in order to avoid confusion with the citizens of modern Iran.
The series of ethnic groups which comprise the Iranian peoples are traced to a branch of the ancient Indo-EuropeanAryans known as the Iranians or Proto-Iranians. Some scant information about the way of life of these early people has been elucidated through archaeological finds in Russia, Central Asia and the Middle East. The Iranian peoples have played an important role throughout history: the Achaemenid Persians established the world’s first multi-national state, and the Scythian- Sarmatian nomads dominated the vast expanses of Russia and western Siberia for centuries and gave birth to the infamous Amazons. In addition, the various religions of the Iranian peoples, including Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism, were important early philosophical influences on Judeo-Christianity. Early Iranian tribes were the precursors to many diverse modern peoples, including the Persians, the Kurds, the Pashtuns, and many other, smaller groups. The southern Iranian peoples survived Alexander the Great’s conquests, Muslim Arab attempts at cultural dominance, and devastating assaults by the Mongols, whereas the Iranians of the north were largely assimilated by the Slavs and other European peoples.
Etymology and usage
The term Iranian is derived from Iran (lit: “Land of the Aryans”). The old Proto-Indo-Iranian term Arya, meaning “noble”, is believed to have been one of a series of self-referential terms used by the Aryans, at least in the areas populated by Aryans who migrated south from Central Asia and southern Russia. Their ancient homeland was referred to as Airyanem Vaejah and varied in its geographic range, sometimes referring to Fars (according to Eratosthenes), sometimes to the area around Herat (Pliny’s view), sometimes to the entire expanse of the Iranian plateau ( Strabo’s designation).
From a linguistic standpoint, the term Iranian peoples is similar in its usage to the term Germanic peoples, which includes various peoples who happen to speak Germanic languages such as German, English and Dutch, or the term Slavic peoples, which includes various speakers of Slavic languages including Russians, Bosniaks, and Serbs. Thus, along similar lines, the Iranian peoples include not only the Persians, or Tajiks, of Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan, but also the Pashtuns, Kurds, Ossetians, Baloch, and a number of other groups. The academic usage of the term Iranian peoples, or Iranic peoples, is thus distinct from the state of Iran and its various citizens (who are all Iranian by nationality, and thus popularly referred to as Iranians), in the same way that Germanic peoples is distinct from Germans. Many citizens of Iran are not necessarily “Iranian peoples”, by virtue of not being speakers of Iranian languages, and may not have discernable ties to ancient Iranian tribes.
Roots
Having descended from the Aryans (Proto- Indo-Iranians), the ancient Iranian peoples separated from the Indo-Aryans,Nuristanis and Dards in the early 2nd millennium BCE. The Iranian languages form a sub-branch of the Indo-Iranian sub-family, which is a branch of the family of Indo-European languages. The Iranian peoples stem from early Proto-Iranians, themselves a branch of the Indo-Iranians, who are believed to have originated in either Central Asia or Afghanistan circa 1800 BCE. The Proto-Iranians are traced to the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia. The area between northern Afghanistan and the Aral Sea is hypothesized to have been the region where the Proto-Iranians first emerged, following the separation of Indo-Iranians tribes.
By the first millennium BCE, Ancient Iranian peoples such as the Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Parthians populated the Iranian plateau, while Iranian peoples such as the Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea. TheSaka and Scythian tribes remained mainly in the north, and spread as far west as the Balkans and as far east as Xinjiang. Later offshoots, related to the Scythians, included the Sarmatians, who vanished following Slavic and other invasions into southern Russia, the Ukraine, and the Balkans, presumably due to having been assimilated by other tribes.
There are only scant references to these early Proto-Iranian invaders in the early writings of the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians. Two of the early offshoots of the Proto-Iranians are known: Avestan speakers in Afghanistan, and Old Persian speakers in Fars in southeastern Iran. The Avestan texts known as the Gathas are believed to have been written by Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism, while Old Persian appears to have been established in written form following the adoption of cuneiform from the Sumerians. The Yaz culture (ca. 1500-1100 BC) may mark the development of Eastern Iranian and the emergence of Avestan culture.
The first mentioning by an Iranian tribe of their “Aryan” lineage is from an early inscription known as the Behistun Inscription, recording a proclamation by Darius I of Persia that he was of Aryan ancestry and that his language was an Aryan language. The inscription thus provides a link in the Iranian languages to the usage of the term Arya in early Indo-Aryan texts. These ancient Persians recognized three official languages (Elamite, Babylonian, and Old Persian), which suggests a multicultural society. It is not known to what extent other Proto-Iranian tribes referred to themselves as “Aryan”, or if the term has the same meaning in other Old Iranian languages.
Demographics
There are an estimated 150 million native speakers of Iranian languages. Currently, most of these Iranian peoples live in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, western-Pakistan, parts of Uzbekistan (especially Samarkand and Bukhara), the Caucasus (Ossetia and Azerbaijan), and the Kurdish areas (referred to as Kurdistan) of Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria. Smaller groups of Iranian peoples can also be found in western China, India and Israel.
Due to recent migrations, there are also large communities of speakers of Iranian languages in Europe and theAmericas.
Diversity
It is largely through linguistic similarities that the Iranian peoples have been linked, as many non-Iranian peoples have adopted Iranian languages and cultures. However, other common traits have been identified as well, and a stream of common historical events have often linked the southern Iranian peoples, including Hellenistic conquests, the various empires based in Persia, Arab Caliphates, and Turkic invasions.
Although most of the Iranian peoples settled in the Iranian plateau region, many expanded into the periphery, ranging from the Caucasus and Turkey to the Indus and western China. The Iranian peoples have often mingled with other populations, with the notable example being the Hazaras, who display a distinct Turkic- Mongol background that contrasts with most other Iranian peoples. Similarly, the Baloch have mingled with the Dravidian-speaking Brahui (who have been strongly modified by Iranian invaders themselves), while the Ossetians have invariably mixed with Georgians and other Caucasian peoples. Moreover, the Kurds are an eclectic Iranian people who, although displaying some ethnolinguistic ties to other Iranian peoples (in particular their Iranian language, and some cultural traits), are believed to have mixed with Caucasian and Semitic peoples. Modern Persians themselves are also a heterogeneous group of peoples descended from various ancient Iranian and indigenous peoples of the Iranian plateau, including the Elamites. Thus, not unlike the aforementioned example of Germanic peoples including the English, who are both of Germanic and Celtic origin, Iranians are an ethno-linguistic group, and the Iranian peoples display varying degrees of common ancestry and cultural traits that denote their respective identities.
Culture and assimilation
Many of the cultural traits of the ancient Iranians were similar to other Proto-Indo-European societies. Like other Indo-Europeans, the early Iranians practiced ritual sacrifice, had a social hierarchy consisting of warriors, clerics, and farmers, and poetic hymns and sagas to recount their deeds.
Following the Iranian split from the Indo-Iranians, the Iranians developed an increasingly distinct culture. It is surmised that the early Iranians intermarried with and assimilated local cultures over a long period of time, and thus a caste identity was never needed or created by the Iranians—in sharp contrast with the Indo-Aryans.
Various common traits can be discerned amongst the Iranian peoples. For example, the social event Norouz is an Iranian festival that is practiced by nearly all of the Iranian peoples as well as others in the region. Its origins are traced to Zoroastrianism and pre-historic times.
Some Iranian peoples exhibit distinct traits that are unique unto themselves. The Pashtuns adhere to a code of honor and culture known as Pashtunwali, which has a similar counterpart amongst the Baloch, called Mayar, that is more hierarchical.
Religion
The early Iranian peoples may have worshipped various deities found throughout other cultures where Indo-European invaders established themselves. The earliest major religion of the Iranian peoples was Zoroastrianism, which spread to nearly all of the Iranian peoples living in the Iranian plateau.
Modern speakers of Iranian languages mainly follow Islam. Some follow Judaism, Christianity and the Bahá’í Faith, with an unknown number showing no religious affiliation. Of the Muslim Iranian peoples, the majority overall are followers of the Sunni sect of Islam, while most Persians and Hazaras are Shi’a. Shi’a Islam and Sufism in Iran are both thought to be affected by Persianism. The Christian community is largely represented by the Russian Orthodox denomination, followed by Ossetians and Nestorians. Judaism is followed mainly by Persian Jews, Jews of Afghanistan, Kurdish Jews, and Mountain Jews (of the Caucasus), most of which are now found in Israel. The historical religion of the Persian Empire was Zoroastrianism and it has some followers. They are known as the Parsis in India, or Zoroastrians in Iran and Pakistan.
In the Shahnameh a poetic opus written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi around 1000 AD, Zahhak is an evil king who conquers Iran and who has serpents growing out of his shoulders. A long time ago in between the two great rivers Euphrates and Tigris there was a land called Mesopotamia. Deep inside the castle lived a cruel Assyrian king called Zahhak. His armies terrorised all the people of the land. All had been well before Zahhak’s rule in Mesopotamia. It was during the reign of a king called Jemshid that things started to go wrong. He thought himself above the sun gods and began to lose favour with his people. A spirit called Ahriman the Evil, seized the chance to take control. He chose Zahhak to take over the throne, who then killed Jemshid and cut him in two. The Emergence of Snakes The evil spirit, disguised as a cook, fed Zahhak with blood and the flesh of animals and one day Ahriman merely asked to kiss Zahhak on his two shoulders, which he agreed. Then Ahriman touched Zahhak’s shoulders with his lips and vanished. At once, two black snakes grew out of Zahhak’s shoulders. They could not be surgically removed, for as soon as one snake-head had been cut off, another took its place.From a psychological viewpoint, the snakes on Zahhak’s shoulders could represent his lust for killing or a form of sadism which, if left unsatisfied, would torment Zahhak. Ahriman now appeared to Zahhak in the form of a skilled physician. He counseled Zahhak that the only remedy was to let the snakes remain on his shoulders, and sate their hunger by supplying them with human brains for food every day otherwise the snakes will feed on his own. Zahtak"s rule lasts for a thousand years during
In the Shahnameh a poetic opus written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi around 1000 AD, Zahhak is an evil king who conquers Iran and who has serpents growing out of his shoulders.
A long time ago in between the two great rivers Euphrates and Tigris there was a land called Mesopotamia. Deep inside the castle lived a cruel Assyrian king called Zahhak. His armies terrorised all the people of the land.
All had been well before Zahhak’s rule in Mesopotamia.
It was during the reign of a king called Jemshid that things started to go wrong. He thought himself above the sun gods and began to lose favour with his people.
A spirit called Ahriman the Evil, seized the chance to take control. He chose Zahhak to take over the throne, who then killed Jemshid and cut him in two.
The Emergence of Snakes
The evil spirit, disguised as a cook, fed Zahhak with blood and the flesh of animals and one day Ahriman merely asked to kiss Zahhak on his two shoulders, which he agreed. Then Ahriman touched Zahhak’s shoulders with his lips and vanished.
At once, two black snakes grew out of Zahhak’s shoulders. They could not be surgically removed, for as soon as one snake-head had been cut off, another took its place.From a psychological viewpoint, the snakes on Zahhak’s shoulders could represent his lust for killing or a form of sadism which, if left unsatisfied, would torment Zahhak.
Ahriman now appeared to Zahhak in the form of a skilled physician. He counseled Zahhak that the only remedy was to let the snakes remain on his shoulders, and sate their hunger by supplying them with human brains for food every day otherwise the snakes will feed on his own.
Zahtak”s rule lasts for a thousand years during which two young men are sacrificed daily to provide their brains to the serpents to alleviate the pain that Zahhak felt.
Since the snake king began his rule over the kingdom, the sun refused to shine. Now all was dark, cold and bleak. The people all over the land were very sad.
Rise of Kaveh the Blacksmith
Kaveh (also called Kaveh Ahangar or Kaveh the Blacksmith) was a simple blacksmith. He and his wife were weakened by grief and hated Zahhak as he had already taken 16 of their 17 children.
One day the order came from the castle that Kaveh’s last daughter was to be killed and her brain was to be brought to the castle gate the very next day.
Zahhak’s minions had murdered 16 of his 17 sons so that Zahhak might feed his snakes’ lust for human brains.
Kaveh lay all night on the roof of his house, under the bright stars and rays of the shining full moon thinking how to save his last daughter from Zahhak’s snakes.
Instead of sacrificing his own daughter, Kaveh had sacrificed a sheep and had put the sheep’s brain into the wooden bucket. And no one had noticed. Soon all the townspeople heard of this. So when Zahhak demanded from them a child sacrifice, they all did the same. Like this, many hundreds of children were saved.
Then all the saved children went, under darkness, to the very furthest and highest mountains where no one would find them.
Here, high up in the safety of the Zagros Mountains, the children grew in freedom. They learnt how to survive on their own. They learnt how to ride wild horses, how to hunt, fish, sing and dance.
From Kaveh they learnt how to fight. One day soon they would return to their homeland and save their people from the tyrant king. Time went by and Kaveh’s army was ready to begin their march on the castle. On the way they passed through villages and hamlets. The village dogs barked and the people came out of their houses to cheer them and give them bread, water, yoghurt and olives.
The Destiny of the Demon Snake
As Kaveh and the children drew near Zahhak’s castle both men and women left their fields to join them. By the time they were approaching the castle Kaveh’s army had grown too many thousands.
They paused outside the castle and turned to Kaveh.
Kaveh stood on a rock. He wore his blacksmith’s leather apron and clenched his hammer in his hand. He turned and faced the castle and raised his hammer towards the castle gates.
The large crowd surged forwards and smashed down the castle gates that were shaped like winged warriors and quickly overpowered Zahhak’s men.
Kaveh raced straight to Zahhak’s chambers, down the winding stone stairs, and with his blacksmiths hammer killed the evil snake king and cut off his head. The two serpents withered.
He then climbed to the top of the mountain above the castle and lit a large bonfire to tell all the people of Mesopotamia that they were free.
Soon, hundreds of fires all over the land were lit to spread the message and the flames leapt high into the night sky, lighting it up and cleansing the air of the smell of Zahhak and his evil deeds. The darkness was gone.
The fires burned higher and higher and the people sang and danced around in circles holding hands with their shoulders bobbing up and down in rhythm with the flute and drum. The women in bright coloured sequined dresses sang love songs and the men replied as they all moved around the flames as one.
Some of the youngsters hovered over the flute, drunk with the sound of the music, their arms outstretched like eagles soaring the skies. Now they were free.
Memoriam of Kaveh Uprising
To this day, on the same Spring day every year, March 21st, (which is also Spring Equinox) Kurdish, Persian, Afghan and other people of the Middle East dance and leap through fires to remember Kaveh and how he freed his people from tyranny and oppression and to celebrate the coming of the New Year.
This day is called Newroz or New Day. It is one of the few ‘peoples celebrations’ that has survived and predates all the major religious festivals. Although celebrated by others, it is especially important for the Kurds as it is also the start of the Kurdish calendar and celebrates the Kurds own long struggle for freedom.
In the Kurdish myth, Zahhak”s evil reign causes spring to no longer come to Kurdistan.
Kaveh is the most famous of Persian mythological characters known for resisting the despotic foreign rule in Iran. He rebels against the foreign ruler of Persia and leads the people to overthrow the tyrant king.
By the late Sassanid era (224–651), Kaveh’s Banner had emerged as the standard of the Sassanid dynasty. The tomb of Kaveh is believed to be situated on a hill near a village named Mashhad-e Kaveh in Isfahan province.
