Arctium Several species have been widely introduced worldwide. Description Plants of the Arctium types have dark green leaves that can grow up to 70 cm (28 in) long. They are commonly large, coarse and oval, with the lower ones being heart-shaped.They are wooly underneath with hollow leaf stalks. Arctium species generally from July through to October have flowered.In August Burdock flowers provide essential pollen and nectar for honey bees. A large number of species have been placed in genus Arctium at one time or another. The burdocks are sometimes confused with the cockleburs and rhubarb. Food and drinks We can harvest and eat Burdock as a root vegetable. Burdock root is very crisp and has a sweet, mild, and pungent flavor with a little muddy harshness that can be reduced by soaking julienned or shredded roots in water for five to ten minutes. Premature flower stems may also be harvested in late spring before flowers appear; their taste resembles that of artichoke, to which the burdock is related. The stems are thoroughly pared, and either eaten raw or boiled in salt water. In the second half of the 20th century, burdock achieved international recognition for its culinary use due to the increasing popularity of the macrobiotic diet, which advocates its consumption. It contains a fair amount of dietary fiber, calcium, potassium, amino acids, and is low in calories. It contains a polyphenol oxidase , which causes its darkened surface and muddy harshness by forming tannin-iron complexes. Burdock root's harshness harmonizes well with pork in miso soup and with Japanese-style pilaf. Burdock is believed to be a galactagogue, a substance that increases lactation, but it is sometimes recommended to be avoided during pregnancy based on animal studies that show components of burdock to cause uterus stimulation. Traditional Medicine Folk herbalists considered
Arctium
Several species have been widely introduced worldwide.
Description
Plants of the Arctium types have dark green leaves that can grow up to 70 cm (28 in) long. They are commonly large, coarse and oval, with the lower ones being heart-shaped.They are wooly underneath with hollow leaf stalks. Arctium species generally from July through to October have flowered.In August Burdock flowers provide essential pollen and nectar for honey bees.
A large number of species have been placed in genus Arctium at one time or another. The burdocks are sometimes confused with the cockleburs and rhubarb.
Food and drinks
We can harvest and eat Burdock as a root vegetable. Burdock root is very crisp and has a sweet, mild, and pungent flavor with a little muddy harshness that can be reduced by soaking julienned or shredded roots in water for five to ten minutes.
Premature flower stems may also be harvested in late spring before flowers appear; their taste resembles that of artichoke, to which the burdock is related. The stems are thoroughly pared, and either eaten raw or boiled in salt water.
In the second half of the 20th century, burdock achieved international recognition for its culinary use due to the increasing popularity of the macrobiotic diet, which advocates its consumption. It contains a fair amount of dietary fiber, calcium, potassium, amino acids, and is low in calories. It contains a polyphenol oxidase , which causes its darkened surface and muddy harshness by forming tannin-iron complexes. Burdock root’s harshness harmonizes well with pork in miso soup and with Japanese-style pilaf.
Burdock is believed to be a galactagogue, a substance that increases lactation, but it is sometimes recommended to be avoided during pregnancy based on animal studies that show components of burdock to cause uterus stimulation.
Traditional Medicine
Folk herbalists considered dried burdock to be a diuretic, diaphoretic, and a blood purifying agent. Burdock is a traditional medicinal herb used for many ailments. Burdock root oil extract. Modern studies indicate that burdock root oil extract is rich in phytosterols and essential fatty acids. The green, above-ground portions may cause contact dermatitis in individual with allergies as the plant contains lactones.
Lavender is a type of plant found on almost all continents. It has a purplish color. Lavenders in food Lavender is also used in cake decorating, because the flowers can become candied. Sometimes they are used in flavoring baked goods and chocolate desserts, and sometimes they use it to make a very delicious “ lavender sugar”. Lavender flowers are also used to make tea. Medicine Lavenders are sometimes put in medicine, too, and sometimes to prevent infection such as lavender oil . As the folk wisdom says, lavender oil is also helpful to headaches, when rubbed on your temple, and lavender tea helps you relax before bed time. Lavender also is very helpful when applied to insect bites.
Lavender is a type of plant found on almost all continents. It has a purplish color.
Lavenders in food
Lavender is also used in cake decorating, because the flowers can become candied. Sometimes they are used in flavoring baked goods and chocolate desserts, and sometimes they use it to make a very delicious “ lavender sugar”. Lavender flowers are also used to make tea.
Medicine
Lavenders are sometimes put in medicine, too, and sometimes to prevent infection such as lavender oil . As the folk wisdom says, lavender oil is also helpful to headaches, when rubbed on your temple, and lavender tea helps you relax before bed time. Lavender also is very helpful when applied to insect bites.
Salvia is the largest kind of plants in the Minit Family with nearly 1000 species of shrubs annually. It is one of the several kinds that commonly referred to as sage. This kind is distributed throughout the Old World and the Americas, with three distinct regions of variety: Central and South America ; Central Asia and Mediterranean ; Eastern Asia (90 species). Description: Salvia species include annual, biennial, or perennial herbs, along with woody subshrubs. The stems are typically angled like other members of Lamiaceae. The leaves are typically entire, but sometimes toothed or pinnately divided. The flowering stems bear small bracts, dissimilar to the basal leaves in some species, the bracts are ornamental and showy. The flowers are produced in clusters or panicles and generally produce a showy display with flower colors ranging from blue to red, with white and yellow less common. The calyx is normally tubular or bell-shaped, without bearded throats, and divided into two parts or lips, the upper lip entire or three-toothed, the lower two-cleft. The corollas are often paw shaped and are two-lipped. The upper lip is usually entire or three-toothed. The lower lip typically has two lobes. The stamens are reduced to two short structures with anthers two-celled, the upper cell fertile, and the lower imperfect. The flower styles are two-cleft. The fruits are smooth ovoid or oblong nutlets and in many species, they have a mucilaginous coating. Many members of Salvia have hairs growing on the leaves, stems, and flowers, which help to reduce water loss in some species. Sometimes the hairs are glandular and secrete volatile oils that typically give a distinct aroma to the plant. When the hairs are rubbed or brushed, some of the oil-bearing cells are ruptured, releasing the oil. This often results in the plant being unattractive
Salvia is the largest kind of plants in the Minit Family with nearly 1000 species of shrubs annually. It is one of the several kinds that commonly referred to as sage.
This kind is distributed throughout the Old World and the Americas, with three distinct regions of variety:
Central and South America ; Central Asia and Mediterranean ; Eastern Asia (90 species).
Description:
Salvia species include annual, biennial, or perennial herbs, along with woody subshrubs. The stems are typically angled like other members of Lamiaceae. The leaves are typically entire, but sometimes toothed or pinnately divided. The flowering stems bear small bracts, dissimilar to the basal leaves in some species, the bracts are ornamental and showy.
The flowers are produced in clusters or panicles and generally produce a showy display with flower colors ranging from blue to red, with white and yellow less common. The calyx is normally tubular or bell-shaped, without bearded throats, and divided into two parts or lips, the upper lip entire or three-toothed, the lower two-cleft. The corollas are often paw shaped and are two-lipped. The upper lip is usually entire or three-toothed. The lower lip typically has two lobes. The stamens are reduced to two short structures with anthers two-celled, the upper cell fertile, and the lower imperfect. The flower styles are two-cleft. The fruits are smooth ovoid or oblong nutlets and in many species, they have a mucilaginous coating.
Many members of Salvia have hairs growing on the leaves, stems, and flowers, which help to reduce water loss in some species. Sometimes the hairs are glandular and secrete volatile oils that typically give a distinct aroma to the plant. When the hairs are rubbed or brushed, some of the oil-bearing cells are ruptured, releasing the oil. This often results in the plant being unattractive to grazing animals and some insects.
Staminal lever mechanism
The defining characteristic of the genus Salvia is the unusual pollination mechanism.
It is central to any investigation into the systematics, species radiation, or pollination biology of Salvia. It is instead of the typical four found in other members of the tribe Mentheae consists of two stamens and the two thecae on each stamen are separated by an elongate connective. It is the elongation of the connective that enables the formation of the lever mechanism.
It believed that the lever mechanism is a key factor in the speciation, adaptive radiation, and diversity of this large genus.
History
George Bentham was first to give a full monographic account of the genus in 1832-1836, and based his classifications on stamina morphology and it is still
the only comprehensive and global organization of the family.
He was less confident about his organization of Salvia. At that time, there were only 291 known Salvia species.
Subdivision:
Bentham eventually organized Salvia into twelve sections (originally fourteen), based on differences in scyphus , pappus, flag. These were placed into four subgenera that were generally divided into Old World and New World species.
His system is still the most widely studied classification of Salvia, however, more than 500 new species have been discovered since his work.
Other botanists have since offered modified versions of Bentham’s classification system while botanists in the last hundred years generally do not endorse Bentham’s system.
Salvia was monophyletic, meaning that all members of the genus evolved from one ancestor.
However, the immense variety in stamina structure, vegetative habit and floral morphology of the species within Salvia has opened the debate about its infrageneric classifications.
Selected species and their uses
Many species are used as herbs, as ornamental plants (usually for flower interest), and sometimes for their ornamental and aromatic foliage. The Plant List has 986 accepted species names.
Hybrids
Many inter specific hybrids occur naturally, with a relatively high degree of cross ability, but some of them have been intentional. A natural hybrid has given rise to a series of popular ornamentals.
Etymology
The name Salvia derives from the Latin severe. the verb related to sales , referring to the herb’s healing properties.
Pliny the Elder was the first author known to describe a plant called “Salvia” by the Romans, likely describing the type species of the genus Salvia, Salvia officinalis.
The common modern English name sage derives from Middle English sawge, which was borrowed from Old French sauge, and like the botanical name stems from Latin salvere. When used without modifiers, the name ‘sage’ generally refers to Salvia officinalis . however, it is used with modifiers to refer to any member of the genus. The ornamental species are commonly referred to by their genus name Salvia
Melissa officinalis, known as lemon balm, balm, common balm, or balm mint, is a perennial herbaceous plant in the mint family Lamiaceae, native to south-central Europe, North Africa, the Mediterranean region, and Central Asia. It grows to 70–150 cm (28–59 in) tall. The leaves have a gentle lemon scent, related to mint. During summer, small white flowers full of nectar appear. It is not to be confused with bee balm (which is genus Monarda). The white flowers attract bees, hence the genus name Melissa (Greek for 'honey bee'). Its flavor comes from citronellal (24%), geranial (16%), linalyl acetate (12%) and caryophyllene(12%). Cultivation Officinalis is native to Europe, central Asia, and Iran, but is now naturalized around the world. Lemon balm seeds require light and at least 20°C (70°F) to germinate. Lemon balm grows in clumps and spreads vegetatively, as well as by seed. In mild temperate zones, the stems of the plant die off at the start of the winter, but shoot up again in spring. Lemon balm grows vigorously and should not be planted where it will spread into other plantings. Officinalis may be the "honey-leaf" (μελισσόφυλλον) mentioned byTheophrastus.[8] It was in the herbal garden of John Gerard, 1596.[9] The many cultivars of M. Officinalis include: Officinalis 'Citronella' M. Officinalis 'Lemonella' Officinalis 'Quedlinburger' Officinalis 'Lime' Officinalis ‘Variegata’ Officinalis ‘Aurea’ (M. Officinalis ‘Quedlinburger Niederliegende’ is an improved variety bred for high essential oil content.) Usage Culinary use Lemon balm is often used as a flavoring in ice cream and herbal teas, both hot and iced, often in combination with other herbs such as spearmint. It is also frequently paired with fruit dishes or candies. It can be used in fish dishes and is the key ingredient in lemon balm pesto. Uses in traditional and alternative medicine In the traditional Austrian medicine, M. Officinalis leaves have been prescribed for internal (as tea) or external (essential oil) application for the treatment of disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, nervous system, liver, and bile. It is also a common addition
Officinalis is native to Europe, central Asia, and Iran, but is now naturalized around the world.
Lemon balm seeds require light and at least 20°C (70°F) to germinate. Lemon balm grows in clumps and spreads vegetatively, as well as by seed. In mild temperate zones, the stems of the plant die off at the start of the winter, but shoot up again in spring. Lemon balm grows vigorously and should not be planted where it will spread into other plantings.
Officinalis may be the “honey-leaf” (μελισσόφυλλον) mentioned byTheophrastus.[8] It was in the herbal garden of John Gerard, 1596.[9] The many cultivars of M. Officinalis include:
Officinalis ‘Citronella’
M. Officinalis ‘Lemonella’
Officinalis ‘Quedlinburger’
Officinalis ‘Lime’
Officinalis ‘Variegata’
Officinalis ‘Aurea’
(M. Officinalis ‘Quedlinburger Niederliegende’ is an improved variety bred for high essential oil content.)
Usage
Culinary use
Lemon balm is often used as a flavoring in ice cream and herbal teas, both hot and iced, often in combination with other herbs such as spearmint. It is also frequently paired with fruit dishes or candies. It can be used in fish dishes and is the key ingredient in lemon balm pesto.
Uses in traditional and alternative medicine
In the traditional Austrian medicine, M. Officinalis leaves have been prescribed for internal (as tea) or external (essential oil) application for the treatment of disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, nervous system, liver, and bile. It is also a common addition to peppermint tea, mostly because of its complementing flavor.
Lemon balm is the main ingredient of Carmelite Water, which is still for sale in German pharmacies.
Lemon balm essential oil is very popular in aromatherapy. The essential oil is commonly distilled with lemon oil, citronella oil, or other oils.
Research into possible effects on humans
High doses of purified lemon balm extracts were found to be effective in the amelioration of laboratory-induced stress in human subjects, producing “significantly increased self-ratings of calmness and reduced self-ratings of alertness.” The authors further report a “significant increase in the speed of mathematical processing, with no reduction in accuracy” following the administration of a 300-mg dose of extract.
Lemon balm is believed to inhibit the absorption of the thyroid medication thyroxine.
Recent research found a daily dose of the tea reduced oxidative stress status in radiology staff who were exposed to persistent low-dose radiation during work. After only 30 days of taking the tea daily, consuming lemon balm tea resulted in a significant improvement in plasma levels of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase, and a marked reduction in plasma DNA damage , myeloperoxidase, and lipid peroxidation.
The crushed leaves, when rubbed on the skin, are used as a mosquito repellent.
Lemon balm is also used medicinally as an herbal tea, or in extract form. It is used as an anxiolytic, mild sedative, or calming agent. At least one study has found it to be effective at reducing stress, although the study’s authors call for further research. Lemon balm extract was identified as a potent in vitro inhibitor of GABA transaminase, which explains anxiolytic effects. The major compound responsible for GABA transaminase inhibition activity in lemon balm was then found to be rosmarinic acid.
Lemon balm and preparations thereof also have been shown to improve mood and mental performance. These effects are believed to involve muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Positive results have been achieved in a small clinical trial involving Alzheimer patients with mild to moderate symptoms. Essential oils obtained from Melissa officinalis leaf showed high acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase co-inhibitory activities.
Its antibacterial properties have also been demonstrated scientifically, although they are markedly weaker than those from a number of other plants studied.The extract of lemon balm was also found to have exceptionally high antioxidant activity.
Lemon balm is mentioned in the scientific journal Endocrinology, where it is explained that Melissa officinalis exhibits anti thyrotropic activity, inhibiting TSH from attaching to TSH receptors, hence making it of possible use in the treatment of Graves’ disease or hyperthyroidism.
Khoresh-e Fesenjān , or simply Fesenjān, is an Iranian stew flavored with pomegranate syrup and ground walnuts . It is traditionally made with poultry , but also variants using balls of ground meat, ghormeh cut lamb, fish, or no meat at all are not unusual. Depending on the cooking method, it can have sweet or sour taste. It is served with Persian white or yellow rice . It is also found in Iraq and Azerbaijan Fesenjan This khoresh is also a very old and popular dish with all Iranians. It is mandatory at all festival dinners and the public food servings of the religious nights of Ramadan and Muharram. It may be made of duck, partridge, chicken, lamb or veal hind shin, shoulder, or ground meat. 1 large onion, minced ½ teaspoon pepper ½ teaspoon turmeric 2 tablespoons butter or cooking oil 1 pound meat or a small duck or partridge ½ pound walnut meat, coarsely chopped 1/3 cup hot water 1 ½ cups pomegranate juice Salt to taste Juice of 1 or 2 lemons (optional) 1 small eggplant Cooking oil 1 ½ teaspoons cardamom powder Sauté the onion with the pepper and turmeric in the butter or the oil until well browned. Remove onion and drain. If ground meat is used, make small balls and brown slightly in the oil remaining in the pan. If birds are used, brown them on all sides. Sprinkle meat or birds with the flour and the chopped walnuts and sauté for a few minutes longer. Add water, pomegranate juice, and salt to taste and , if you like a sourer dish, the lemon juice. Cover and simmer over low heat for 30 minutes. Peel eggplant, cut lengthwise into 6 or 8 pieces, sprinkle each piece with salt, and stack one on top of the other for a few minutes to drain .Then rinse in cold water, dry ,
Khoresh-e Fesenjān , or simply Fesenjān, is an Iranianstew flavored with pomegranate syrup and ground walnuts . It is traditionally made with poultry , but also variants using balls of ground meat, ghormeh cut lamb, fish, or no meat at all are not unusual. Depending on the cooking method, it can have sweet or sour taste. It is served with Persian white or yellow rice .
It is also found in Iraq and Azerbaijan
Fesenjan
This khoresh is also a very old and popular dish with all Iranians. It is mandatory at all festival dinners and the public food servings of the religious nights of Ramadan and Muharram. It may be made of duck, partridge, chicken, lamb or veal hind shin, shoulder, or ground meat.
1 large onion, minced
½ teaspoon pepper
½ teaspoon turmeric
2 tablespoons butter or cooking oil
1 pound meat or a small duck or partridge
½ pound walnut meat, coarsely chopped
1/3 cup hot water
1 ½ cups pomegranate juice
Salt to taste
Juice of 1 or 2 lemons (optional)
1 small eggplant
Cooking oil
1 ½ teaspoons cardamom powder
Sauté the onion with the pepper and turmeric in the butter or the oil until well browned. Remove onion and drain. If ground meat is used, make small balls and brown slightly in the oil remaining in the pan. If birds are used, brown them on all sides.
Sprinkle meat or birds with the flour and the chopped walnuts and sauté for a few minutes longer. Add water, pomegranate juice, and salt to taste and , if you like a sourer dish, the lemon juice. Cover and simmer over low heat for 30 minutes.
Peel eggplant, cut lengthwise into 6 or 8 pieces, sprinkle each piece with salt, and stack one on top of the other for a few minutes to drain .Then rinse in cold water, dry , and sauté in hot oil until lightly browned on both sides. Arrange the eggplant on top of the meat or poultry, partially cover, and simmer over low heat until the eggplant is tender and a rich, brown gravy rises to the top. Add powdered cardamom, stir well but gently, and cook about 5 minutes longer. Serve with chelo.
Note:
1pound white fish or salmon may be used instead of meat or poultry. In this case the cooking time will be about 15 minutes less. Also either of the following vegetables may be substituted for the eggplant :one pound fresh pumpkin meat, minced and sautéed , or one pound Italian squash halved and sautéed.
Sometimes I use lemon or lime juice, brown sugar, and ½ cup tomato juice when pomegranate juice is not available.
Qormeh Sabzi is an Iranian herb stew. It is a very popular dish in Iran and neighboring Azerbaijan Republic. It is often said to be the Iranian national dish. The history of Qormeh Sabzi dates back at least 500 to 2,000 years. Etymology Qormeh is the Persian word for "stew", while Sabzi is the Persian word for herbs. Preparation This mixture is cooked with kidney beans, yellow split-peas or black-eyed peas, yellow or red onions, black lime (pierced dried limu-Omani Persian lime), and turmeric-seasoned lamb or beef. The dish is then served with chelo (Persian parboiled and steamed rice) or over tahdig. This khoresh is served with chelou or kateh, dami and sweet polou. It is very much favored for picnics, and is humorously titled say-yed-ul-qava-mire, meaning the master of all minced ones. 1pound shoulder, leg, or shanks of lamb or veal with bone 1medium onion, chopped 2 tablespoons oil 1 teaspoon turmeric 1 teaspoon black pepper ½ cup hot water 1 cup lemon juice 2 pounds equal parts of fresh green onion leaves, celery leaves, spinach, parsley, and fresh dill (if available) 1/3 cup any good oil One of the following ingredients: 3 ounces dried red or small white beans or ½ pound chopped raw potatoes (Serves 4 to 5) Cut meat into large pieces and sauté it with the onion in the 2 tablespoons oil until browned. Add turmeric and pepper, the hot water, and lemon juice. Cover and cook over low heat for 10 minutes. Meanwhile wash and mince all vegetable leaves and, without adding water, cook them in the large frying pan over low heat, folding constantly until wilted and dry. Add the 1/3 cup oil and mix and sauté about 5 minutes longer. Add vegetables to the simmering meat. If dried beans are to be used, they must be added now. Cover top partially and simmer over low heat for 30 minutes longer. If potatoes are used, they should be sautéed
This khoresh is served with chelou or kateh, dami and sweet polou. It is very much favored for picnics, and is humorously titled say-yed-ul-qava-mire, meaning the master of all minced ones.
1pound shoulder, leg, or shanks of lamb or veal with bone
1medium onion, chopped
2 tablespoons oil
1 teaspoon turmeric
1 teaspoon black pepper
½ cup hot water
1 cup lemon juice
2 pounds equal parts of fresh green onion leaves, celery leaves, spinach, parsley, and fresh dill (if available)
1/3 cup any good oil
One of the following ingredients:
3 ounces dried red or small white beans or ½ pound chopped raw potatoes
(Serves 4 to 5)
Cut meat into large pieces and sauté it with the onion in the 2 tablespoons oil until browned. Add turmeric and pepper, the hot water, and lemon juice. Cover and cook over low heat for 10 minutes.
Meanwhile wash and mince all vegetable leaves and, without adding water, cook them in the large frying pan over low heat, folding constantly until wilted and dry.
Add the 1/3 cup oil and mix and sauté about 5 minutes longer. Add vegetables to the simmering meat. If dried beans are to be used, they must be added now. Cover top partially and simmer over low heat for 30 minutes longer. If potatoes are used, they should be sautéed slightly in a little oil and then added to the meat. Let simmer again, partially covered, until a rich gravy rises to the top.
Note:
Sour fruit such as unripe sour plums or dried limes may be added in place of the lemon juice.
Yazd souvenirs are various, some of which are world famous including carpets with charming patterns; pileless carpets, tirma (a kind of cashmere), brodcaded silk, velvet, blankets, bed-cloths, earthen ware,engraving, glassware and leather ware. Being delicate and beautiful, these handicrafts are suitable to be kept as souvenirs. Yazd is also famous for its various sweets, the most well known are Pashmak (cotton candy), Baqlava and Qotab. Baqlava Baqlava is a rich,sweet pastry made of layers of filo filled with chop ped nuts and sweetened and held together with syrup or honey. It is characteristic of the cuisines of the former Ottoman Empire, and is also found in Central and West Asia. History The history of baqlava is not well documented. There are three proposals for the pre-Ottoman roots of baqlava : the Central Asian Turkic tradition of layered breads, the Roman placenta cake, as developed through Byzantine cuisine,or the Persian lauzinaq. Preparation Baqlava is normally prepared in large pans. Many layers of phyllo dough, separated with melted butter and vegetable oil, are laid in the pan. A layer of chopped nuts-typically walnuts or pistachios, but hazelnuts are also sometimes used- is placed on top, then more layers of phyllo. Most recipes have multiple layers of phyllo and nuts, though some have only top and bottom pastry. Before baking (180 C, 30 minutes), the dough is cut into regular pieces, often parallelograms (lozenge-shaped),triangles, diamonds or rectangles. After baking , a syrup, which may include honey, rosewater, or orange flower water is poured over the cooked baqlava and allowed to soak in. Baqlava is usually served at room temperature, often garnished with ground nuts. Regional Variations In Iran,a drier version of baqlava is cooked and presented in smaller diamond- shaped cuts flavored with rose water . The cities of Yazd and Qazvin are
Yazd souvenirs are various, some of which are world famous including carpets with charming patterns; pileless carpets, tirma (a kind of cashmere), brodcaded silk, velvet, blankets, bed-cloths, earthen ware,engraving, glassware and leather ware. Being delicate and beautiful, these handicrafts are suitable to be kept as souvenirs. Yazd is also famous for its various sweets, the most well known are Pashmak (cotton candy), Baqlava and Qotab.
Baqlava
Baqlava is a rich,sweet pastry made of layers of filo filled with chop ped nuts
and sweetened and held together with syrup or honey. It is characteristic of the cuisines of the former Ottoman Empire, and is also found in Central and West Asia.
History
The history of baqlava is not well documented. There are three proposals for the pre-Ottoman roots of baqlava : the Central Asian Turkic tradition of layered breads, the Roman placenta cake, as developed through Byzantine cuisine,or the Persian lauzinaq.
Preparation
Baqlava is normally prepared in large pans. Many layers of phyllo dough, separated with melted butter and vegetable oil, are laid in the pan. A layer of chopped nuts-typically walnuts or pistachios, but hazelnuts are also sometimes
used- is placed on top, then more layers of phyllo. Most recipes have multiple
layers of phyllo and nuts, though some have only top and bottom pastry.
Before baking (180 C, 30 minutes), the dough is cut into regular pieces, often parallelograms (lozenge-shaped),triangles, diamonds or rectangles. After baking , a syrup, which may include honey, rosewater, or orange flower water is poured over the cooked baqlava and allowed to soak in.
Baqlava is usually served at room temperature, often garnished with ground nuts.
Regional Variations
In Iran,a drier version of baqlava is cooked and presented in smaller diamond- shaped cuts flavored with rose water . The cities of Yazd and Qazvin are famous for their baqlava , which is widely distributed in Iran. Persian baqlava uses a combination of chopped almonds and pistachios spiced with cardamom and a rose water-scented syrup and is lighter than other Middle Eastern versions. Azerbaijani pakhlava is widely eaten in Iran, espesiaaly in Iranian Azerbaijan
Pashmak
Pashmak (Persian: پشمک) is a form of Persian candy floss or cotton candy, made from sesame and sugar. The word Pashmak in Persian is composed of پشم pashm [wool] + ـَک ak [resemblance suffix] meaning “wool-like”, as the confectionery resembles sheep’s wool.
Pashmak is served on its own or as an accompaniment to fruits, cakes, ice creams, puddings and desserts.
Pashmak originated in the Iranian city of Yazd known for its various traditional Persian sweets such as Baqlava, Qottab, and Gaz.
A Turkish sweet called pişmaniye bears some resemblance to Pashmak.
Industrialization
Always known for the quality of its silk and carpets, Yazd today is one of Iran’s industrial centers for textiles. There is also a considerable ceramics and construction materials industry and unique confectionery and jewelry industries.
A significant portion of the population is also employed in other industries including agriculture, dairy, metal works, and machine manufacturing. There are a number of companies involved in the growing information technology industry, mainly manufacturing primary materials such as cables and connectors. Currently Yazd is the home of the largest manufacturer of fibre optics in Iran.
Yazd’s confectioneries have a tremendous following throughout Iran and have been a source of tourism for the city. Confectioners workshops (khalifehs, or experts) keep their recipes a guarded secret, and there are many that have remained a private family business for many generations. Baklava, Ghotab and Pashmak are the most popular sweets made in the city.
In 2000 the Yazd Water Museum opened; it features exhibits of water storage vessels and historical technologies related to water.
Yazd has expanded its industrial fields since the 1980s. With at least three main industrial areas each containing over 70 different factories, Yazd has become one of the most technologically advanced cities of Iran. The most famous corporations include Yazd Steel, Shimi Plastic of Yazd, and Yazd Polymer.
Choqa Zanbil is an ancient Elamite Complex in the Khuzestan province of Iran. It is one of the few existence ziggurats outside of Mesopotamia . It lies approximately 42 km South-southeast of Dezful, 30 km south –east of Susa and 80 km north of Ahvaz. History of Choqa Zanbil Choqa in Bakhtiari means "hill". Choqa Zanbil means 'basket mound.It was built about 1250 BC by the king Untash-Napirisha, mainly to honor the great god Inshushinak. Its original name was Dur Untash, which means 'town of Untash', but it is unlikely that many people, besides priests and servants, ever lived there. The complex is protected by three concentric walls which define the main areas of the 'town'. The inner area is wholly taken up with a great ziggurat dedicated to the main god,which was built over an earlier square temple with storage rooms also built by Untash-Napirishia . The middle area holds eleven temples for lesser gods. It is believed that twenty-two temples were originally planned, but the king died before they could be finished, and his successors discontinued the building work. In the outer area are royal palaces, a funerary palace containing five subterranean royal tombs. Although construction in the city abruptly ended after Untash-Napirisha's death, the site was not abandoned, but continued to be occupied until it was destroyed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in 640 BC. Some scholars speculate, based on the large number of temples and sanctuaries at Choqa Zanbil, that Untash-Napirisha attempted to create a new religious center (possibly intended to replace Susa)which would unite the gods of both highland and lowland Elam at one site. The main building materials in Choqa Zanbil were mud bricks and occasionally baked bricks. The monuments were decorated with glazed baked bricks, gypsum and ornaments of faïence and glass. Ornamenting the most important buildings were thousands of baked bricks bearing inscriptions with Elamite cuneiform characters were all inscribed by
Choqa Zanbil is an ancient Elamite Complex in the Khuzestan province of Iran. It is one of the few existence ziggurats outside of Mesopotamia . It lies approximately 42 km South-southeast of Dezful, 30 km south –east of Susa and 80 km north of Ahvaz.
History of Choqa Zanbil
Choqa in Bakhtiari means “hill”. Choqa Zanbil means ‘basket mound.It was built about 1250 BC by the king Untash–Napirisha, mainly to honor the great god Inshushinak.
Its original name was Dur Untash, which means ‘town of Untash’, but it is unlikely that many people, besides priests and servants, ever lived there. The complex is protected by three concentric walls which define the main areas of the ‘town’. The inner area is wholly taken up with a great ziggurat dedicated to the main god,which was built over an earlier square temple with storage rooms also built by Untash-Napirishia . The middle area holds eleven temples for lesser gods. It is believed that twenty-two temples were originally planned, but the king died before they could be finished, and his successors discontinued the building work. In the outer area are royal palaces, a funerary palace containing five subterranean royal tombs.
Although construction in the city abruptly ended after Untash-Napirisha’s death, the site was not abandoned, but continued to be occupied until it was destroyed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in 640 BC. Some scholars speculate, based on the large number of temples and sanctuaries at Choqa Zanbil, that Untash-Napirisha attempted to create a new religious center (possibly intended to replace Susa)which would unite the gods of both highland and lowland Elam at one site.
The main building materials in Choqa Zanbil were mud bricks and occasionally baked bricks. The monuments were decorated with glazed baked bricks, gypsum and ornaments of faïence and glass. Ornamenting the most important buildings were thousands of baked bricks bearing inscriptions with Elamite cuneiform characters were all inscribed by hand. Glazed terracotta statues such as bulls and winged griffins guarded the entrances to the ziggurat. Near the temples of Kiririsha and Hishmitik-Ruhuratir, kilns were found that were probably used for the production of baked bricks and decorative materials. It is believed that the ziggurat was built in two stages. It took its multi-layered form in the second phase.
The ziggurat is considered to be the best preserved example in the world. In 1979, Chogqa Zanbil became the first Iranian site to be inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Archaeology of Choqa Zanbil
Choqa zanbil was excavated in six seasons between 1951 and 1961 by Roman Ghirshman.
Threats of Choqa Zanbil
Petroleum exploration due to increased global demand threatens the foundations of the site , as various seismic tests have been undertaken to explore for reserves of petroleum. Digging for oil has been undertaken as close as 300 metres away from the ziggurat.
Some 3,000 years ago, in the area south of the Caspian Sea in what is now modern Iran, craftsmen developed a distinctive type of pottery. This small installation features some of the outstanding treasures in the Sackler Gallery's collection of ancient Iranian ceramics. It celebrates the talents of ancient Iranian potters, and showcases the high quality of their crafted works. The History of Persian Ceramics Pottery making in the Iranian Plateau dates back to the Early Neolithic Age (7th millennium BCE) with the production of coarse, unglazed wares. Later wares were made from earthenware clays with a layer of white slip (engobe). They were covered by transparent lead glazes and colors were added with oxides. Persian ceramics matured with time into more elaborate styles and techniques.During the 7th century, the Arabs conquered Persian territory as well as Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia. A large part of North Africa was conquered next, including Egypt (see map below).In 717 CE, occupation of the Iberian peninsula took place, making the Arab empire one of the strongest.This set the stage for a development in Persian art forms based on Roman, Greek, Egyptian, and Central Asiatic ideas. The blending of these ideas from many regions was seen in the products of the ceramic industry. Influenced by techniques already practiced in conquered territories, Persian potters developed new forms and styles to produce the fine wares that characterize Persian ceramics. Because refined wares were mostly destined to serve and decorate the homes of the wealthy, or for export, this industry received great patronage and support. During the 9th century under the Abbasid rulership, additional styles and techniques were adopted and refined, later evolving into even more elaborate and exquisite forms. The use of cobalt blue dates to this period, as does the use of other metallic oxides, such
Some 3,000 years ago, in the area south of the Caspian Sea in what is now modern Iran, craftsmen developed a distinctive type of pottery. This small installation features some of the outstanding treasures in the Sackler Gallery’s collection of ancient Iranian ceramics. It celebrates the talents of ancient Iranian potters, and showcases the high quality of their crafted works.
The History of Persian Ceramics
Pottery making in the Iranian Plateau dates back to the Early Neolithic Age (7th millennium BCE) with the production of coarse, unglazed wares. Later wares were made from earthenware clays with a layer of white slip (engobe). They were covered by transparent lead glazes and colors were added with oxides. Persian ceramics matured with time into more elaborate styles and techniques. During the 7th century, the Arabs conquered Persian territory as well as Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia. A large part of North Africa was conquered next, including Egypt (see map below). In 717 CE, occupation of the Iberian peninsula took place, making the Arab empire one of the strongest.This set the stage for a development in Persian art forms based on Roman, Greek, Egyptian, and Central Asiatic ideas. The blending of these ideas from many regions was seen in the products of the ceramic industry. Influenced by techniques already practiced in conquered territories, Persian potters developed new forms and styles to produce the fine wares that characterize Persian ceramics. Because refined wares were mostly destined to serve and decorate the homes of the wealthy, or for export, this industry received great patronage and support.
During the 9th century under the Abbasid rulership, additional styles and techniques were adopted and refined, later evolving into even more elaborate and exquisite forms. The use of cobalt blue dates to this period, as does the use of other metallic oxides, such as copper, to produce blues and greens. Potters at this time were also experimenting with slip decorations, and were able to control the liquid slip to create elaborate and intricate decorations. Colors such as manganese purple, tomato red, olive green, yellow and brown were applied to the surface and then covered with a transparent glaze, creating a glossy and smooth finish. The 11th century brought dramatic changes to the ceramic industry, influenced by Chinese porcelain ware. For a time Persian potters had tried to imitate the Chinese potter’s porcelain ware, but they were unsuccessful because they lackedkaolin, a fine clay used for the production of porcelain. With the introduction of the Frit Ware, however, Persian potters were able to produce the smooth surface they sought. This new clay body was composed of white clay, powdered glass and quartz. Its soft consistency facilitated the use of new techniques such as engraving, piercing and molding.
By the 12th century, Persian ceramic styles were well established and they set the standards for further innovations and conventions. In the 13th century, however, ceramics took an abrupt turn with the Mongol conquest, and for a time, pottery production halted. Wares made during the Mongol occupation are called Il Kanid wares, referring to the ruling dynasty. In the 14th century the arts revived again, with the invasion of the Timur, under whose rule new centers of pottery production appeared. Kirman became one of the main centers. The control of the Iberian peninsula and the fall of Granada in 1492, added polychrome pottery to the colorful spectrum of Persian ceramic styles. Through the centuries, Persian potters have responded to the demands and changes brought by political turmoil by adopting and refining newly introduced forms and blending them into their own culture. This innovative attitude has survived through time and influenced many other cultures around the world.
A new look at ancient Iranian ceramic
A New Look at Ancient Iranian Ceramics, from the Arthur M. Sackler Foundation, is the first major exhibition of ancient Iranian ceramics in over a decade. The exhibition features forty-five extraordinary pieces that illustrate the 5,000-year ceramic tradition that flourished in ancient, pre-Islamic, Iran until 100 BC. The beautiful, technically sophisticated, and often-amusing ceramics of ancient Iran demonstrate a rich yet little known tradition comparable to pre-Columbian, Chinese and Greek achievements, establishing ancient Iranian pottery as one of the great ceramic traditions. The jugs, jars, beakers and spouted and shaped vessels in the exhibition were used for holding, pouring and drinking liquids, especially wine. Wit and Wine explores how ancient Iranian potters made and decorated these vessels with high quality of craftsmanship and design, and often with a unique sense of humor. Many pieces are shaped like animals or are painted with animal motifs. Interpretations of wild and domesticated animals show elegant deer, powerful rams and amusing goats. Some pieces were created to serve specific functions, such as cosmetic containers, some vessels were made to look like metal, and others are purely sculptural forms. Included in the exhibition are an extraordinary ceramic head and neck of a bull, a vessel in the form of a seated camel, a stag head rhyton (drinking horn), a vessel with a deer’s head spout, a vessel in the form of a stag, a spouted vessel in the shape of a bull, and a delightful vessel with two feet.
Iran Ceramics & Pottery
Ceramic Industry is one of the oldest industries in the world. The first ever-excavated ceramic objects belonging to 10 to 12 thousand years ago were explored in Zagros mountain range in Iran that indicate a long and shining history in it. Archeological studies in Iran have shown that pottery in Iran has a history as old as 8,000 years. One of the most important characteristics of the pottery and ceramics in different regions of Iran is “the expressive and beautiful decorations” on them. These decorations in different parts of Iran are completely compatible with the people’s belief, culture and climate of those areas.
Exceptional and marvelous items were created in that era. Decorating historical monuments and buildings inclusive of mosques in Isfahan and other Iranian towns.The color and quality of Iranian tiles and ceramics are so unique that they have resisted hard climatic and erosive conditions of Iran for centuries. “Sultanabad” and “Lajvardina” are two types of pottery.
